Ch 7. Extracting Mineral Resources.

Presentation on theme: "Ch 7. Extracting Mineral Resources."— Presentation transcript:

1 Ch 7. Extracting Mineral Resources

2 Contents Introduction Sand and gravel dredging Peat extraction
Aquatic sediments Extracting gravels Effect of extraction Effect on rivers: Gravel extraction and creative conservation Peat extraction Occurrence and formation of peat Exploitation of peat Protection and restoration of peatlands Manganese nodules Oil exploration and production Seismic survey effects Drilling effects Platform waste Salt extraction Summary

3 Introduction extraction of mineral resources 2 types
Pollutant (mining operation) Acid mine drainage: acid + heavy metals 2 types created by the water body itself: peat, gravels, Mn nodule minerals in water body: oil and gas + other minerals: salt, Br gold panning oyster shells deep ocean bed: barite nodule, polymetallic sulfides, titanium, gold, platinum 해양물질자원 > 무생물자원> 해수 – 해수, 해수 담수화 (농축해수) > 광물 – 무기광물, 화석자원 해수 용해 물질; 심해저 퇴적물과 응집물; 대륙붕 해저 광물자원 seawater; surface deposits; subsurface deposits; nodules; metalliferous sediments

4 Sand and gravel dredging
2a. Aquatic sediments soft sediment aggregation on their beds fragments of bedrock, soil, detrital particles and shell fragments size: fine silt – cobbles and boulders; sorting large terraces of alluvial gravel; glacial ice sedimentation aggregations – interstitial space *sink for contaminants from the water and its catchment 2b. Extracting gravels construction; glacial processes River sediments Dry-pit mining; wet-pit mining; Bar skimming (or decalping) Marine sediments dredging, bucket, grab, suction 2c. Effect of extraction Direct effects Habitat effects 2d. Effect on rivers 2e. Gravel extraction and creative conservation

5 2e. Gravel extraction and creative conservation
Sand and gravel dredging 2c. Effect of extraction direct effect of the operation; knock on effect of habitat alteration Direct effects: removal of substratum; bottom topography change organism mortality; aggregation of fine sediments & algae dispersed Resuspension knock on effect down currents – sediment plume, primary production Habitat effects the rate of extraction vs. the natural replenishment rate coastal extraction – erosion of beaches 2d. Effect on rivers occasional extreme flows; siltation bank erosion; channel incision, widening (narrowing); damming healthy sediments; burrowing species, fish spawning (clutch size), oxygen levels Effect on the sea bed extraction method, sediment type and mobility, bottom topography, bottom current strength diversity, abundance, biomass; rare species 2e. Gravel extraction and creative conservation dry-pit – flood – aquatic; more complex depression (Fig. 7.4)

6 Magis: http://www.sandandgravel.com/
Web info Magis: Geographical Information Systems (GIS) on internet for searching and presenting spatial data. MARIS has developed its own Linda_GIS application WEBMAPPING EXAMPLES Eu-seased: Search in over seafloor samples Euroseismic: Search in over 2,5 million line kilometers of seismic tracks Emidoi: Search in offshore oil and gas activities Search in database of marine sand & gravel licenses Seanet: Search in database of meteorologic and oceanographic data in the North Sea Electronic market and central focal point for information and data on the marine sand and gravel, aggregate and concrete industries. MAGIS, the Marine Sand & Gravel Information Service The aim of the MAGIS web site, which can be found at is to provide an information platform on the Internet for professionals engaged in dredging and marine sand and gravel extraction. The web site brings together and provides access to a variety of data and information sets from the dredging industry, government (licensing departments, geological surveys) and associations. MAGIS - Marine sand & gravel extraction licenses MAGIS represents an entirely new concept in the provision of specialist information for use by anyone involved or interested in the European Marine Aggregate industry. This is a complex industry, which extends from government agencies responsible for the organisation of sand and gravel extraction licences, through major dredging contractors, to the manufacturers of dredging equipment. It is also highly competitive and this has meant that, in order to be successful, the MAGIS project has had to command the respect of all the major 'players' in this dynamic business. The MAGIS site was initiated with financial support of the European Commission's INFO 2000 programme and is now fully operational, supported by the major global dredging associations and public authorities, responsible for licensing in the North Sea. One of the modules in the MAGIS website is an up to date map annex database of marine sand & gravel licenses in the North Sea. This database is maintained by the public authorities, using online content management facilities. Welcome to goodmarine.com Providing information and sharing good practice on aggregate extraction in the marine environment Dredging News Online is a unique publication for all those involved in the international dredging industry, ports and harbours, and marine contracting. Update daily, Dredging News Online is a truly international publication that addresses every aspect of dredging and related subjects such as hydrographic survey. It does so in a timely manner, bringing you the latest news from all around the world. Dredging News Online provides updates on contracts and tenders, new technology, new vessels, research and development, company news, project profiles and much more, all complete with illustrations. WWW: Construction Sand and Gravel Statistics and Information

7 Peat extraction Peat extraction 3a. Occurrence and formation of peat
the accumulated remains of wetland plants, incompletely decomposed in waterlogged soils but highly compressed fuel, fertilizer structural integrity and water-retaining properties acrotelm and catotelm 3b. Exploitationof peat peat cutting – irreparable harm to the structure and ecology of peat bog; water logging traditional peat extraction; hand industrial extraction; initial draining, mechanical milling hydrological balance 3c. Protection and restoration of peat lands ‘Save the Bog Campaign’ What is peat? Peat is a heterogeneous mixture of more or less decomposed plant (humus) material that has accumulated in a water-saturated environment and in the absence of oxygen. Its structure ranges from more or less decomposed plant remains to a fine amorphic, colloidal mass. The warmer the climate, the quicker the plant material will decompose. The rate of accumulating plant material is greatest in areas where the temperature is high enough for plant growth but too low for the vigorous microbial activity that breaks down the plant material. Such conditions are found more frequently in the northern hemisphere. In "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands" by Donal Clarke and Hans Joosten (2002), the following terms are used: A wetland is an area that is inundated or saturated by water at a frequency and for a duration sufficient to support a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Peat is sedentarily accumulated material consisting of at least 30% (dry mass) of dead organic material. A peatland is an area with or without vegetation with a naturally accumulated peat layer at the surface. A mire is a peatland where peat is currently being formed. A suo is a wetland with or without a peat layer dominated by a vegetation that may produce peat acrotelm The upper layer of a peat bog, in which organic matter decomposes aerobically and much more rapidly than in the underlying, anaerobic catotelm. As litter accumulates at the surface the size of the catotelm increases, because the thickness of the acrotelm is limited to depth at which aerobic respiration can occur. Although the rate of decomposition per unit volume of material is much greater in the acrotelm than in the catotelm, a point is reached at which the difference in volume between the two layers is such that the total rate of decomposition in the catotelm is equal to that in the acrotelm. This limits the thickness to which the bog can grow. Should there be a climate change (e.g. an increase in precipitation) growth can resume. Bogs therefore preserve a record of climatic conditions. The catotelm and acrotelm represent two distinct soil layers in undisturbed peat bogs that control the hydrological regime. The catotelm is the bottom layer of peat that is permanently below the water table. Under these anaerobic conditions, microbial activity and peat decomposition is very slow. The catotelm is composed of relatively decomposed compacted peat and water movements are slow.

8 Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter
Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and peat swamp forests. Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world. By volume there are about 4 trillion m³ of peat in the world covering a total of around 2% of global land mass (about 3 million km²), containing about 8 billion terajoules of energy.

9 Diagram showing the structure of the acrotelm and the catotelm.
The acrotelm is the living part of peat bogs. It is made of loose material creating large pore space that is periodically occupied by water. (Redrawn from Payette & Rochefort 2001) Diagram showing the structure of the acrotelm and the catotelm. The acrotelm is the living part of peat bogs. It is made of loose material creating large pore space that is periodically occupied by water. (Redrawn from Payette & Rochefort 2001) The catotelm and acrotelm represent two distinct soil layers in undisturbed peat bogs that control the hydrological regime. The catotelm is the bottom layer of peat that is permanently below the water table. Under these anaerobic conditions, microbial activity and peat decomposition is very slow. The catotelm is composed of relatively decomposed compacted peat and water movements are slow.

10 INTERNATIONAL PEAT SOCIETY
The International Peat Society (IPS) is a non-governmental and a non-profit-making organisation the mission of which is to promote wise use of mires, peatlands and peat by advancing scientific, technical, economic and social knowledge and understanding. Peatlands play an important role in the biosphere. They interact with fundamental life-support processes, involving biogeochemical cycling, food-chain support, hydrological dynamics and water quality, and provide habitats for many characteristic (and some highly adapted) plant and animal species. Peat is a heterogeneous mixture of more or less decomposed plant (humus) material that has accumulated in a water-saturated environment and in the absence of oxygen. Peat as a Resource : 2001 WEC Survey of Energy Resources published by the World Energy Council International Peat Society The International Peat Society (IPS) is an international, non-governmental and non-profit organization with 1,412 members from 29 countries. It is dedicated to fostering the advancement, exchange and communication of scientific, technical and social knowledge and understanding for the wise use of peatlands and peat. Scientific, industrial and regulatory stakeholders of all areas related to peat and peatlands are represented in its Commissions, National Committees and other bodies. To achieve its goals, the IPS regularly organizes conferences, symposia and workshops, publishes finding from science and industry and serves in general as a forum to bring together experts from different fields of business, science, culture and regulatory bodies dealing with peat and peatlands. International Peat Society

11 ACTION FOR BOGS & WILDLIFE
Bog Watch What is a Bog? : Bogs began to form in areas where the amount of rain that falls is greater than the evaporation plus the drainage. When drainage is blocked the water collects on the surface. This water soon becomes stagnant, and the remains of plants do not decompose and these start to accumulate as peat. Irish Peatland Conservation Council (

12 Peatland Ecology Research Group (PERG)
the development of restoration techniques; plant recolonisation after harvesting; hydrology, geochemistry, microbiology of natural, harvested and restored peatlands; peatland conservation strategies the peatland populations of birds, arthropodes and mammals; Sphagnum ecology and productivity; Ecological restoration of peatland ecosystems after peat mining; Reclamation of abandoned peatlands; Produce of Sphagnum biomass for developing new growing mixes

13 습지 (wetland)

14 Manganese nodule Manganese nodule extraction
rocky lump, rich in manganese, lie on the abyssal seafloor 1874 Challenger Mn (upto 30%); Cu (1%); Ni (1.25%); Co (1.25%) 0.1 mm per 1000 yrs 14.5 M t per yr; 16x109 t extraction mechanical dredges; suction heads completion of Environmental Impact Assessment dredging tract; physical impacts of fishing dredges (Ch. 4); severe and long-lasting off-path effects; the sediment plume scale of impacts; the recoverability of the benthos and the degre of inter-site variability in vulnerability before mining can be allowed

15 형성과정 : 망간단괴 구성금속 주요 공급원 기준 분류
망간단괴는 구성금속의 주요 공급원에 따라 수성기원(hydrogenetic), 속성기원(diagenetic), 열수기원(hydrothermal)의 세 가지로 분류 수성기원(hydrogenetic) 수성기원의 망간단괴는 바닷물 속의 용존금속으로 부터 단괴 구성물질이 천천히 침전하여 망간층을 형성하며, 이때 침전작용은 박테리아에 의해서 촉진된다. 수성기원 망간단괴는 속성기원의 망간단괴에 비해 철, 코발트와 버나다이트의 함량이 높은 반면, 토도로카이트(todorokite), 구리, 니켈 등의 함량은 낮으며, 매끈한 표면조직과 불규칙한 형태를 갖는다. 속성기원(diagenetic) 속성기원의 단괴는 해수와 퇴적물과의 경계면 하부의 공극수에 용해된 망간성분이 상부로 이동하여 침전된다 속성기원의 망간단괴는 퇴적물에서 용해된 금속의 집합체로, 해수로부터 직접 침전된 금속으로 구성된 수성기원 망간단괴 또는 해저화산 기원 금속으로 구성된 열수기원 망간단괴 와는 서로 상이한 단괴 특성을 가지는 것으로 보인다. 열수기원(hydrothermal) 열수기원은 해수열수용액이 해수 경계면에 이를 때 침전작용으로 형성된다. 상반된 조성과 거친 표면조직을 갖는 열수기원 망간단괴는 망간의 함량이 매우 높은 반면에 철, 구리, 코발트의 함량이 극히 낮으며 버네사이트(birnessite)의 함량은 높은 것으로 보고된다. 망간단괴의 생성설 고온 마그마 챔버로부터의 열수 작용에 의해 생성 (열수 광상) 해수로부터 무기적으로 침전한다는 가설: 해수에 녹아있는 금속이 농집되어 생성 해저에 있는 현무암의 풍화작용으로 현무암 속의 금속, 특히 동, 니켈, 코발트가 망간 단괴 속에 농집되었다는 설 생물이 금속을 모우는 역할

16 심해저 망간단괴 양광기술 연구 양광시스템이란 해저 망간단괴 개발: 양광시스템:
심해저 망간단괴 개발은 탐사, 채광, 수송, 제련의 4 단계로 이루어지며 이 중 심해저 망간단괴를 개발하기 위한 채광시스템은 해저에서 단괴를 모으는 집광시스템, 집광된 단괴를 해저에서 해상까지 권상시키기 위한 양광시스템, 채광선의 세 부분으로 대분할 수 있으며 이 중에서 상업채광시 채광의 성패를 결정하는 것은 집광 및 양광시스템이다. 양광시스템: 집광시스템과 함께 채광토탈시스템의 성패를 좌우하는 양광시스템은 심해저 광업에 있어 중요한 시스템으로서, 이를 해면으로의 양광방식에 따라 분류하면 유체드렛지 방식의 수력펌핑양광시스템과 공기양광시스템, 기계적인 방식의 연속버켓시스템과 모쥴시스템등이 있다. 이 중 유체드렛지방식은 미국 등에서, 연속버켓시스템은 일본에서 심도있게 연구가 진행되었으며, 미래의 기술로서 모쥴방식이 제안되고 있다.

17 심해저자원개발협의회 KADOM 창립 Korea Association for Deep Ocean Minerals Development. 태평양 심해저망간단괴 개발을 위한 민·관 협의체 목표: 심해저 광물자원의 상업생산에 대비하여 민·관 컨소시엄 구축을 목표로 회원사 상호간의 공동협력과 정보교환을 통하여 심해저자원개발사업의 건전한 발전과 국가정책의 수립·추진에 기여함으로써 국민경제 발전에 이바지 1983~1991 태평양 클라리온-클리퍼톤 해역(Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone;C-C zone) 탐사 수행 심해 광물 자원 망간, 니켈, 코발트, 구리 등 망간단괴; 고코발트망간각; 해저열수광상; 가스수화물; 해양심층수 심해저자원개발협의회(심해협)는 1994년 6월 14일 창립된 우리 나라의 태평양 심해저망간단괴 개발을 위한 민·관 협의체입니다. 본 협의회는 심해저 광물자원의 상업생산에 대비하여 민·관 컨소시엄 구축을 목표로 회원사 상호간의 공동협력과 정보교환을 통하여 심해저자원개발사업의 건전한 발전과 국가정책의 수립·추진에 기여함으로써 국민경제 발전에 이바지하는 것을 목표로 하고 있습니다.   정부는 1983년부터 태평양 심해저에 부존되어 있는 망간단괴의 개발에 관심을 갖고 과학기술처 주관의 R&D 사업으로 1983~1991년 기간중 한국해양연구원으로 하여금 태평양 클라리온-클리퍼톤 해역(Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone;C-C zone)에서 탐사를 수행하게 하였으며, 이어 심해저 광물자원 개발의 중요성을 인식하고 1991년 8월 경제장관회의에서 심해저 망간단괴 개발 R&D 사업을 산업자원부(동력자원부)에 이어 해양수산부에 주무부처로 하는 해외자원 개발사업으로 추진하도록 정부의 정책방향을 전환하였습니다. 이에 따라 산업자원부는 1992년부터 클라리온-클리퍼톤 해역(C-C해역)에서의 우리나라 광구확보를 위한 탐사에 본격적으로 착수하여 한국해양연구원과 한국지질자원연구원으로 하여금 공동으로 탐사를 시행하게 하고 대한 광업진흥공사를 정부대행 사업 감리·감독기관으로 지정, 사업을 수행케 하였으며 1992년 2월 유엔 해저기구에 산업자원부를 사업주체로 우리 나라의 심해저광구를 등록 신청하여 마침내 1994년 8월 3일(한국시간) 유엔으로 부터 승인 받기에 이르렀습니다. 신청한 해역은 하와이 동남방 약2,000km거리에 위치하는 30만㎢의 해역으로, 이 중 우리 나라에 할당된 할당광구의 면적은 유엔에 유보된 15만㎢를 제외한 나머지 15만㎢ (면적은 북부지역이 37,204㎢, 남부지역이 112,796㎢) 이며 이를 정밀탐사하여 2002년 8월 최종적으로 개발권을 획득한 면적은 이의 1/2인 7.5만㎢ 입니다. 이와 함께 본 심해저 광물자원개발사업이 대규모 투자비와 각 분야별 첨단기술이 요구되는 사업인만큼 정부 뿐만 아니라 민간기업도 공동으로 참여하는 국가적 사업으로 추진하는 것이 타당하다고 판단하여 민·관 컨소시엄 구성의 전단계인 "협의체"로서 본 협의회의 창립을 구상하여 심해저자원개발협의회가 발족되게 된 것입니다. 본 협의회의 발족은 우리나라 심해저광물자원 개발사업의 본격적 추진을 위한 기틀의 마련이란 점에서 큰 의의가 있다고 하겠으며, 협의회가 국가적 대규모 프로젝트의 성공적 수행에 기여하기 위하여는 각 회원사의 긴밀한 협조와 적극적 노력이 필요합니다.  

18 사업 추진 절차 및 단계별 목표

19 한국해양연구원 대우조선해양(주) 대한광업진흥공사 한국지질자원연구원 (주)한진중공업 삼성물산(주) DSME E&R(주)
한국해양연구원 대우조선해양(주) 대한광업진흥공사 한국지질자원연구원 (주)한진중공업 삼성물산(주) DSME E&R(주) 삼성중공업(주) (주)한진중공업 대우조선해양(주) 한국해양연구원 한진해운(주) 현대중공업(주) 현대상선(주) 대한광업진흥공사 한국해양연구원 한국지질자원연구원 한국산업은행 효성물산(주) 삼성물산(주) 현대종합상사(주) 대한제당(주) LG상사(주) (주)동부HiTek (주)삼탄 한국해양연구원 한국지질자원연구원 대우조선해양(주) 삼성중공업(주) (주)동　원 (주)한진중공업 현대중공업(주) 한국생산기술연구원 한국지질자원연구원 LS-Nikko동제련(주) 포항산업과학연구원 한국해양연구원 대우조선해양(주) 삼성중공업(주) (주)한진중공업

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21 바다 속 망간, 로봇차로 채굴한다 [중앙일보 2004/11/18] 클라리온 클리퍼톤 해역
한국해양연구원 해양개발시스템연구본부 홍섭 박사팀 수심 3000~5000m 망간 덩어리 채굴 시스템 개발 현재 채굴 실험연구동과 일부 기기 개발 2007년에는 바다에서 직접 채굴 실험 예정 바다 위 채굴용 배, 바다 밑까지 연결되는 긴 파이프, 바다 밑에서 망간 덩어리 채굴 로봇차 지름 25㎝ 파이프 연결 망간 덩어리 흡입 길이 25m짜리를 바다 밑까지 계속 연결. 초당 1m 이동 로봇 채굴차가 망간 덩어리 선별 중간 집하장 모아 놓으면 흡입 파이프가 공기청소기처럼 망간 덩어리를 배까지 빨아 올리게 된다. 로봇 채굴차의 속도는 고속도로에서 자동차가 시속 100㎞로 달릴 때 받는 저항을 받는다. "망간 덩어리는 대부분 지름 5~6㎝여서 파이프로 빨아 올리는 것이 경제적“ 아주 강한 스테인리스강 사용 스테인리스강의 강도는 어른 엄지손톱 크기의 넓이가 500㎏의 무게를 견딜 수 있을 정도다. [중앙일보 2004/11/18]

22 Oil exploration and production
5a. Seismic survey effects sudden blasts of sound: mammal, fish, benthos 5b. Drilling effects cuttings are washed back up to the platform and the cutting bit is cooled and lubricated – pumping ‘mud’ down ‘mud’; detergent + heavy metals in lubricating solution (diesel) toxic effects of the mud → lower toxicity formulations (cost) opportunistic species 5c. Platform waste offshore; lakes ‘blow-outs’, the accidental spillage of ‘mud’ from a platform

23 대한석유협회 Korea Petroleum Association
설립목적: 회원상호간의 이해와 우호증진을 통해 석유산업의 건전한 발전에 기여한다 설립배경: 제1, 2차 석유위기를 겪으면서 안정적인 원유공급 및 대국민 홍보를 위한 석유산업의 구심체 필요성 제기 등 정부와 업계의 공동인식으로 협회 설립 (민법 제32조에 의한 사단법인) 주요사업 석유 및 석유산업에 관한 지식의 발전과 보급 국내외 석유산업에 관한 자료와 정보의 수집, 교환, 분석 평가, 발간 등 조사연구사업 석유산업에 관한 홍보활동 정부가 법령 또는 고시로 위임하는 업무 석유자원개발에 관한 업무 기타 사업 정보마당

24 탐사와 개발

25 즐거운 석유 여행

26 Discover Petroleum What made oil Trapping Oil
Plankton Plankton is the name we give to tiny sea creatures and plants. The picture shows living plankton under a microscope (about 150 x bigger than real life). These plankton would form oil in about 150 million years time if the sea bed is not disturbed. Jurassic period The plankton that make our crude oil lived and died in the Jurassic period. Dinosaurs ruled the Earth This was the time of the dinosaurs. It was about 180,000,000 years ago. Dying plankton When plankton die they fall to the sea bed. Many layers The plankton are trapped under many layers of sand and mud. As time goes by Over millions of years, the sand and mud turn to rock. Also, the pressure and the Earth's heat turn the dead plankton into oil. Trapping Oil Folding Some rocks have tiny spaces called pores. The rocks with these pores can hold the oil like a sponge. The cap rock stops the oil from escaping. Over millions of years, the rocks fold. Sometimes they form a dome shape that can catch the oil. Rock layers Oil can float up through the tiny spaces in the rock. We call these tiny spaces pores and we say that the rock is porous. This takes millions of years. Not all the way The oil can't get through the cap rock and is trapped in the dome of rock underneath. Capping The cap rock stops the oil from escaping. The rock layer underneath has tiny spaces, or pores, in it. Although it is solid, it can hold the oil like a sponge. The oil companies can drill into this rock to recover the oil.

27 Oil platforms Oil rigs are used to drill exploration wells to look for oil. And oil platforms are used to drill into an oil field to extract the oil. There are several different types of oil rig and platform. Some oil rigs are like huge ships which are held by anchors. Oil platforms are huge structures. Some have concrete legs that sit on the sea bed. They had to be made in a shipyard and towed out to sea. Other platforms have metal legs - sometimes they are jacked up. People who work on oil platforms have to go to work by helicopter. The platform support is usually taller than the BT tower in London. A jack up rig at sea. These can be moved to a new place if needed. Have a look at some other rigs. Oil platforms in the giant Brent oil field in the North Sea. The second platform has concrete legs. Have a look at them being built. This floating rig is used to drill test holes and find oil. It is held in place by anchor chains or computer-controlled propell Types of platform This picture shows some of the types of oil pltform. Notice how tall they are compared with the BT tower in London. The water in the North Sea is often over 200 metres deep. These legs are being built for a platform in the Brent oil field. They are over 200 metres tall. That's the length of two full size football pitches end to end. Have a look at them at sea.

28  Undersea reservoir Undersea oil wells often have to be drilled horizontally so as to reach all the oil in the reservoir. An oil well gets its name from traditional water wells. It is a hole that is drilled into the ground to reach a reservoir of liquid - in this case oil. However, an oil well can be a little more complicated than a water well - especially oil wells under the sea bed. First of all, the drill thread has to be lowered to the sea bed before it can start drilling through the cap rock. Secondly, the well often spans out horizontally once has penetrated the reservoir. This is because the oil is held in porous rock - it is not like an underground stream. Often the oil has to be pumped out of the rock. It is only oil close to the end of well that is retreived. The top end of the well is called the well head. This is where the oil is removed from the well. Some oil reservoirs need to be pumped. In this case, there are small pumps inside the well pipes. Also, water is pumped into the well to force the crude oil mixture out. This water is pumped down injector wells while the oil is pumped out of production well.

29 The drill bit The drill pipes
A drill bit is made of steel. The edges are encrusted with diamonds. These are hard enough to cut through rock. They are connected to the end of sections of spinning pipe. The spinning bit cuts through the rock. The drill pipes The drill bit is attached to the end of lots of pipe sections. The oily, sludgy rock can pass up through the middle of the bit. The pressure of the oil pushes it up to the surface. Find out more about drill workers.

30 Crude oil mixture Emulsion with water Crude oil mixture
The picture shows a mixture of crude oil, water and sand about two minutes after it has come out of the Captain field in the Moray Firth. The caramelly effect is caused by the water and oil joining in an emulsion. Crude oil mixture When crude oil comes out of a well, it is often mxied with other substances. Often, there are gases dissolved in the oil. These have to be removed at the well. Otherwise, they might come out of solution and cause a build up of pressure in a pipe or a tanker. Oil that comes from undersea wells is often mixed with water and some sand. It forms an emulsion with the water that looks a bit like caramel. The sand is suspended in the emulsion, adding to the caramel effect. The sand will settle out and the water is removed using de-emulsifying agents. They have to be separated from the crude oil before it can be processed ready for transportation by tanker or pipeline..

31 Oil tankers An ocean going tanker Tanker filling at sea
This tanker can carry over a quarter of a million tonnes of crude oil. The tanker is so long that the crew use bicycles to travel from one end to the other. Tanker filling at sea This tanker is filling up with a cargo of crude oil in the Maureen field in the North Sea. It will take this crude oil to a refinery on the UK coast. The loading rig is connected to the oil platform by an undersea pipe. Tankers at Fawley The picture shows four ships moored to the seaward berths at Fawley.

32 Salt extraction Salt extraction Salt prehistoric; major trade item
traditional salt extraction methods; salt pans ecological effects mortality of all organisms fish – harvested, wading birds food gross habitat change Salt Salt, the most popular food seasoning, is a dietary mineral essential for animal life, composed primarily of sodium chloride. Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as sea salt), refined salt (table salt), and iodized salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light grey in color, normally obtained from sea water or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly greyish in color due to this mineral content.

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34 대한염업조합 우리조합은 국민 식생활의 필수품인 소금을 관리하는 산업자원부 산하 기관으로 소금의 품질검사와 염의 수급조절 및 염산업 경쟁력 강화사업을 수행하고 있습니다. 소금이야기

35 Summary 수생기원 퇴적 광물; 해상, 해저 퇴적 광물 자갈 빙하 퇴적 장소 – 습지 토탄 습지 토탄과 자갈 망간단괴
석유 천연개스 소금