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Medical Management of Glaucoma

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1 Medical Management of Glaucoma
Ap.이나영/R4 박창현

2 Principles of Medical Therapy and Management

3 Principles In general, the overall goal to managing all patients with glaucoma is to preserve visual function while maintaining the best possible quality of life. How to Start Establishing the Target Pressure Selecting the appropriate medication Educating and instructing the patient Establishing the efficacy and safety of the treatment at follow-up evaluations 일반적으로 녹내장 치료의 목표는 시기능을 보전하여 삶의 질을 보존하는 것입니다. 치료계획을 세우는데 있어, 먼저 타겟 프레셔를 설정하고, 적절한 medication을 선택하며 환자에게 녹내장에 대한 전반적인 설명과 지도를 하며, 치료 후 경과 관찰하며, 약물의 효과와 안전성에 대하여 확인하는 절차가 필요하겠습니다.

4 Establishing the Target Pressure
In most cases, reducing the IOP by 20% to 30% from baseline is recommended in the middle to high teens : minimal damage (e.g., early neural rim thinning without visual field loss) the low to middle teens : moderate damage (e.g., cupping to the disc margin in one quadrant with early field loss) the high single digits to low teens : advanced damage (e.g., extensive cupping and field loss) 타겟 프레셔를 설정하는 것은 baseline 안압에서 20~30% 줄이는 것이 일반적이다. Minimal damage인 경우 middle to high teens 로 정하며, 정한다.

5 Establishing the Target Pressure
Risk factors : General : Age, Race, Family Hx. IOP, Optic nerve head and peripapillary features, Myopia, DM, Blood pressure. OHT : CCT COAG : Older age, Family Hx., African, myopia ACG : Asian, hyperopia NTG : Ocular ischemia, vasospastic disease Target pressure 를 정하는데 있어써 일반적인 Risk factor를 고려하며, 녹내장 종류별로 Risk factor로 입증된 요소들을 고려합니다.

6 Selecting Initial Medication

7 Drug Kinetics in the Conjunctival Cul-de-Sac
Cholinergic agent Beta blocker Carbonic anhydrase inhibitor Adrenergic stimulator Prostaglandin analogues 방수는 ciliary process에서 생성되어 전방으로 이동합니다. 크게 90%는 trabecular outflow로 약 10%는 Uveoscleral outflow 로 방출되는데, cholinergic agent 는 trabecular outflow, prostaglandin analoge는 uveoscleral outflow로, 나머지 3계열은 방수 생성을 줄이면서 안압을 낮추는 역할을 합니다. 방수는 섬모체돌기의 모세혈관의 혈장으로부터 유래하며 방수의 여러 성분은 후방에 도달하기 위하여 섬모체돌기의 3층 즉 모세혈관벽, 간질 그리고 상피를 통과해야만 한다. 이 조직들을 통과하기 위한 기본적인 장벽은 세포막과 junctional complex이며, 확산(diffusion), 초여과(ultrafiltration), 그리고 분비(secretion) 세가지 기전 중 한 가지에 의해서 물질이 이를 통과한다. 대부분의 방수는 섬유주, 쉴렘관, 집결로(collector channel), 그리고 상공막정맥과 결막정맥으로 구성되는 계통을 통해 전방각에서 눈으로부터 빠져 나간다. 이 통로는 trabeculocanalicular outflow라 하며 사람의 정상 상태의 눈에서 83~96%의 방수의 유출이 이를 통해 이루어진다. 방수의 나머지 5~15%는 부분적으로만 알려진 uveosclera 및 uveovortex 계통으로 통해 눈으로부터 빠져 나간다. 이 모든 방수유출로의 입구는 전방의 주변부인 전방각에 있다. 전방각에 있는 홍채뿌리와 섬모체를 통하여 공막 바깥으로 유출되는 방수로를 uveoscleral outflow라고 한다. 홍채와 섬모체의 앞면에는 완전한 세포 경계층이 없어서 방수가 이들의 간질조직사이의 공간으로 들어갈 수 있다. 이 공간은 섬모체근섬유다발들 사이의 틈새와 연결되어 맥락막위공간(suprachoroidal space)과 섬모체위공간(supraciliary space)으로 이어진다. 이들 공간에 도달한 방수는 공막을 통하여 유출된다. 포도막공막유출로를 통한 방수유출은 공막의 투과성보다 섬모체근육의 긴장도에 달려 있는 것으로 보인다. 섬모체근육이 긴장하면 전방각저에서 섬모체근 섬유다발들 사이의 틈새로 방수가 들어가지 못한다. 섬모체근을 수축시키는 필로카르핀은 이 경로를 통한 방수유출을 줄이고 아트로핀은 증가시킨다.

8 Medical treatment Medical therapy should as a rule start with one drug
The choice of management strategy must take into account efficacy, safety, tolerability, quality of life, adherence and cost 일반적으로, 약을 처방할 때 언제나 지켜야 할 원칙은 부작용이 가장 적으면서 요구되는 치료 효과를 달성할 수 있는 최소량의 약제를 사용하는 것이다. 처방하는 약제는 녹내장의 종류에 따라 다를 뿐 아니라 환자에 따라 다르다. 한 종류의 녹내장에 유효한 약제가 다른 종류의 녹내장에서는 효과가 없거나 역효과를 나타내기도 한다. 환자에 따라서는 약의 농도와 효과가 비례하지는 않고 병용요법의 효과가 없는 경우도 있다. 그러므로 최초의 약을 선택할 때는 유의한 안과적 또는 전신적 부작용이 가장 적은 약을 시도하는 것이 최선의 방법이다. 기존의 약제들이 방수의 생성을 줄이거난 섬유주쉴렘관유출을 증가시켜서 안압을 낮추는데 반하여서 prostaglandin 계열의 약제들은 포도막공막유출을 증가시켜서 안압을 낮추는 것으로 알려져 있으면 31~33% IOP 감소 효과로 다른 topical 약제에 비해 안압하강효과가 우수하다.

9 Prostaglandins and Hypotensive Lipids
Two possible mechanisms Relaxation of the ciliary muscle Remodeling the extracellular matrix of the ciliary muscle. Uveoscleral outflow ↑ Prostaglandi analogues는 2가지 작용기전을 가지며, Ciliary muscle relaxation과 ECM를 remodeling 하여, uveoscleral outflow를 늘립니다.

10 Prostaglandin analogues
Unoprostone (Rescula®) Latanoprost (Xalatan®) Travoprost (Travatan®) Bimatoprost (Lumigan®)

11 Unoprostone Docosanoid, which is a 22-carbon molecule
0.15% available for clinical use in USA 0.12%, administered two times daily lowered IOP by 11% to 23% from baseline Not as effective as timolol at decreasing the IOP two times daily

12 Latanoprost one drop daily
Pro-drug penetrates the cornea and is hydrolyzed by corneal esterase Reduces IOP 6-9mmHg (25-35%) 31% in the morning, and 35% in the evening Thermal and ultraviolet instability

13 Travoprost one drop daily
IOP-lowering effect was greater than the timolol and similar to that of latanoprost effective in lowering IOP in patients with chronic angle-closure glaucoma

14 Bimatoprost one drop daily
IOP-lowering effect was greater than the timolol compared with latanoprost and showed a similar IOP-lowering effect lower IOP in patients with chronic angle-closure glaucoma

15 Prostaglandin analogues
epidermal melanocytes with upregulation of tyrosinase activity in melanocytes 비가역적, 악성 변화 없다. Most common 염증반응 아니라, nitric oxide, neuropeptide의 분비에 의한 혈관 확장 Prostaglandin analogues pigmentation of the iris in a patient taking prostaglandin therapy for glaucoma for 10 months This side effect occurs primarily in patients with green-brown or blue-gray-brown iris color. epidermal melanocytes with upregulation of tyrosinase activity in melanocytes Perifollicular vessel의 potassium channel이 열려 혈관 확장되어 성장 자극 가역적  Right eye showing significant conjunctival hyperemia 5 weeks after initiation of bimatoprost therapy. Hypertrichosis 가역적 External photographs of the patient 6 months after treatment of both eyes with topical latanoprost. Both upper and lower eyelid skin shows increased pigmentation in the periocular skin

16 Prostaglandin analogues
Iris Cyst CME Herpes simplex keratitis Fluorescein angiogram photography taken 5 minutes after dye injection showing a typical pattern of cystoid macular edema, 5 weeks after initiation of bimatoprost therapy.

17 β-blocker Mechanism inexpensive and effective anti-glaucoma medication. Reducing aqueous humor inflow (cilliary process) inhibition of catecholamine-stimulated synthesis of c-AMP dopaminergic antagonist to lower blood flow to the ciliary body not appear that timolol significantly influences the blood-aqueous barrier : not prostaglandin mediated

18 β-blocker Non selective Selective (relative ß1 selective)
Timolol (Timoptic®, RysmonTG®): 0.25, 0.5% Levobunolol (Betagan®): 0.25, 0.5% Befunolol (Bentos®): 0.5, 1% Carteolol (Mikelan®, Calte®): 1, 2% Selective (relative ß1 selective) Betaxolol (Betoptic®): 0.25, 0.5% beta blocker는 1978 timolol이 도입된 이래로, 여러가지 베타차단제의 점안이 계속 증가되어 왔다. 녹내장의 일차약제로 베타차단제가 선택되고 있다. 이들은 베타1과 베타2 수용체를 모두 억제하는 비선택성약제와 주로 베타1 차단 작용을 가진 선택성 약제로 구분되며 비선택성약제로 등등등이 있고 선택성 약제로 betaxolol이 있다.

19 Timolol nonselective, β1- and β 2-adrenergic antagonist
Greater IOP lowering effect than that of epinephrine Compared with pilocarpine, an equivalent or slightly greater IOP lowering effect timolol gel dosed once daily and timolol solution dosed twice daily

20 Betaxolol β1-adrenergic antagonist
Reduction of aqueous humor production and no effect on outflow resistance or pupillary diameter Reduced pulmonary side effects (β2 blocker) Less IOP lowering efficacy than timolol Less IOP lowering efficacy than brimonidine Systemic side effects Better tolerated in asthma patients Less cardiac side effects Less CNS side effects

21 Beta blockers Ocular side effects
: adverse ocular reactions are usually low : not affect the pupillary size or accommodation Burning/Stinging : superficial punctate keratopathy and corneal anesthesia Photophobia Itching Allergic blepharoconjunctivitis Decreased tear production Decrease in goblet cell density Altered mucus tear film No toxicity of topical timolol therapy to the corneal endotheliumn

22 Beta blockers Systemic side effects Respiratory effects
bronchospasm and airway obstruction Cardiac effects slows the pulse rate and weakens myocardial contractility : severe bradycardia, arrhythmias, heart failure, and syncope Central Nervous System Effects depression, anxiety, confusion, dysarthria, hallucinations Effect on Cholesterol Levels Increase the triglyceride (TG) Decrease the high density lipoprotein (HDL) Risk factor for Coronary heart disease

23 α-adrenergic receptor antagonist
Thymoxamine miosis by inhibiting the dilator muscle of the iris without influencing the ciliary muscle-induced facility of aqueous outflow a role in the management of angle-closure glaucoma not affect the rate of aqueous humor formation, IOP, or anterior chamber volume

24 α2-adrenergic agonist Mechanism
little, if any, effect on blood-aqueous barrier permeability vasoconstriction, which reduces the ultrafiltration of plasma into the stroma of the ciliary processes : reducing aqueous production an increase in prostaglandin levels : uveoscleral outflow ↑

25 α2-adrenergic agonist Useful to lower acute pressure elevations following laser procedures These agents are considered second-line drugs for long- term management of COAG in adults.

26 α2-adrenergic agonist Apraclonidine (Iopidine®) 0.5% eyedrop: bid
1% eyedrop: single application Brimonidine (Alphagan P®) 0.15% eyedrop: bid~tid

27 Apraclonidine Para-amino derivative of clonidine
Between Apraclonidine, 0.5% and timolol, 0.5% was no significant difference treatment of short-term IOP elevation, especially after anterior segment laser procedures

28 Bromonidine IOP lowering efficacy of brimonidine
Comparable to 0.5% timolol Greater than 0.25% betaxolol Useful in controling the IOP rise after anterior segment laser surgery prevent optic nerve damage through a neuroprotective mechanism

29 α2-adrenergic agonist Ocular side effects
cross-reactivity with α1-adrenergic receptors in Müller muscle, iris sphincter muscle Allergic reaction Conjunctival blanching Mydriasis Eyelid retraction

30 α2-Adrenergic Agonist Systemic side effects Dry nose and mouth
Fatigue/drowsiness Headache CNS depression Used with great caution or not at all in children younger than 5 years

31 Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
Mechanism : reducing aqueous humor production through an alteration in ion transport associated with aqueous humor secretion Acetazolamide decreases aqueous humor formation in the human eye about 30% compared with only 18% for topical dorzolamide

32 Oral Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
Acetazolamide(Diamox®): 250mg highly serum protein bound compared with methazolamide, which explains why larger doses are required for acetazolamide to achieve its therapeutic effect compared with methazolamide. In adults, 250-mg tablets every 6 hours or 500-mg sustained-release capsules twice each day In children, 5 to 10 mg/kg of body weight every 4 to 6 hours Methazolamide (Neptazane®): 50mg 25 mg of methazolamide given twice daily, advancing to 50 mg twice daily fewer side effects, a longer plasma half-life than acetazolamide

33 Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors (systemic)
Systemic side effects Paresthesia of the fingers and toes and around the mouth Renal stones / failure Hypokalemia Respiratory / Metabolic acidosis Sulphonamide allergy avoided in patients with hepatic insufficiency, renal failure, adrenocortical insufficiency, hyperchloremic acidosis, depressed sodium or potassium levels, or severe pulmonary obstruction

34 Dorzolamide reducing aqueous humor flow by inhibiting the CA II isoenzyme in the ciliary body At 2 hours after dosing, dorzolamide causes 14.7% to 27% reduction in IOP, and at 8 hours after dosing, 12.9% to 17.5% reduction in IOP

35 Brinzolamide inhibiting the CA II isoenzyme in the ciliary body
The IOP reduction at the peak effect 2 hours after dosing ranged from -3.3 to -5.3 mm Hg. Brinzolamide and dorzolamide : equivalent efficacy

36 Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors (Topical)
Ocular side effects Burning / Stinging sensation Bitter taste Irreversible corneal decompensation CA isoenzymes I and II are expressed in corneal endothelium 9 endothelial compromised patients Occurred weeks after Tx Marked reduction in systemic side effects

37 Cholinergic agents Direct acting cholinergic agent
Pilocarpine Carbachol Indirect acting cholinergic agents Physostigmine (Eserine) Echothiophate (Phospholine Iodide) cholinergic receptor를 자극하면 축동이 일어나고 방수 배출이 증가한다. 방수 유출이 개선되는 기전은 섬모체근의 수축과 관계가 있다. 이들은 수용체를 자극함으로써 직접 작용할 수도 있고 생리적 매개물질의 작용을 강화함으로써 간접적으로 작용하기도 한다. direct stimulator 중 가장 흔한 녹내장 치료에 사용하는 것은 pilocarpine 이며 indirect stimulator 중에는 physostigmine, echothiophate가 있는데 이것은 cholinesterase를 억제함으로써 acetylcholine의 작용을 강화시킨다.

38 Cholinergic agents: pilocarpine
inexpensive increasing aqueous outflow: open-angle glaucoma relieving pupillary block: angle-closure glaucoma four times daily side effect Ciliary muscle spasm, cyclic myopia, Miosis Retinal detachment, Cataractogenic effect Corneal endothelial toxicity Cicatrical pemphigoid Hypersensitivity and toxic reaction pilocarpine은 부교감신경작동제로서 콜린성 신경지배를 받는 동공조임근과 섬모체근을 직접 자극하는 것이 acetylcholine과 흡사하다. 양자 모두 해부학적으로 공막돌기와 연결되어 있고 그들을 자극하여 수축하면 방수 유출에 대한 저항을 감소시킨다. 축동, 조절경련, 근시 이외에 다른 부작용으로는 두통, 결막충혈, 유루, 국소적인 과민반응, 눈꺼풀의 경련, 염증의 증가, 홍채뒤유착, 망막박리, 동공폐쇄의 악화 등이 있다.

39 Cholinergic agents Gel : 4% qhs Ocusert : 20mg/hr(1-2%) 7days
Pilocarpine Eyedrop : 1%~4% qid Gel : 4% qhs Ocusert : 20mg/hr(1-2%) 7days 통상적으로 eyedrop은 하루 4회, gel type은 하루 1회 점안하며 ocusert는 녹내장의 치료 약제의 서방형 제제로서는 처음으로 성공적으로 시도된 방법으로 pilocarpin 의 부작용이 발생하긴 하지만 그 정도는 훨씬 덜하여 그 이유는 한꺼번에 많은 양의 약물이 투여되지 않고 서서히 방출되기 때문이다. 다른 부작용은 pilocarpine 점안약에서 보는 것과 유사하며 ocusert가 결막낭내에서 돌아다니거나 가끔 잃어버리는 부작용도 있다.

40 Fixed Combination Drugs
2005 Travoprost 0.004% + Timolol 0.5% 2001 Latanoprost 0.005% + Timolol 0.5% 1998 Dorzolamide 2% + Timolol 0.5% 2009 Brinzolamide 1%와 Timolol 0.5% 2006 Bimatoprost 0.03% + Timolol 0.5% 2006 Brimonidine 0.2% + Timolol 0.5%

41 Hyperosmotic Agents Mannitol, Glycein
Reduction of vitreous volume due to a change in osmotic gradient between the blood and ocular tissues minimize the “posterior pressure” effect Emergency method of lowering the IOP or preoperatively to minimize the “posterior pressure” effect of the vitreous in a supine position 30 minutes in a dose of 1 to 2 g/kg of body weight of a 25% solution Cf) Glycerin (Osmoglyn) is administered orally in a dose of 1 to 1.5 g/kg (or 2 to 3 cc/kg) of body weight of a 50% solution

42 Hyperosmotic Agents: mannitol
side effects diuresis, acidemia, diarrhea anaphylactic reaction headache, intracranial hemorrhage pulmonary edema renal insufficiency

43 Neuroprotection Glaucoma is best described as a progressive optic neuropathy of various origins to protect RGCs utilizing approaches in addition to modulating IOP focused on the retardation or arrest of the progressive loss of optic nerve structures as measured by morphometric methods or image analysis 일차적으로 damage를 받은 세포에서부터 다양한 autodestructive event가 일어나 일차 손상의 원인이 없어져도 인접한 세포들에서 apoptosis가 발생. Glutamate의 과도 분비 → 세포 내로 Ca2+ 의 유입 증가 → PKC, calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II, phospholipases, proteinases, NO synthase, endonuclease 활성화 → apoptosis

44 Neuroprotection INVESTIGATIONAL ANTIGLAUCOMA DRUGS
anecortave, cannabinoids, cellular cytoskeleton modulators, cellular signaling pathways, memantine, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors, prostanoid agents, and rho kinase inhibitors Some experimental evidence β-Blockers : the up-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) -> decrease glutamate- mediated NMDA receptor activation carbonic anhydrase inhibitors : increase retinal blood flow. α2-Adrenergic receptor agonists : up-regulate the formation of BDNF and anti-apoptotic factors. Prostaglandin analogues increase blood flow to the eye, possibly including the retina.

45 Neuroprotection Neuroprotection
Betaxolol (Betoptic) Brimonidine (Alphagan) Latanoprost (Xalatan) Nimodipine, verapamil Only brimonidine appears to have a mechanism that is independent of IOP lowering and neuroprotective for the optic nerve in human glaucoma Ref) Neuroprotection of medical IOP-lowering therapy Norbert Pfeiffer & Julia Lamparter & Adrian Gericke & ranz H. Grus & Esther M. Hoffmann & Jochen Wahl: Cell Tissue Res (2013) 353:245–251

46 prostaglandin 계열은 반면에 conjunctival hyperemia, hypertrichosis, skin pigmentation, uveitis, CME 등의 side effect가 있으며, alphagan 등의 alpha-2 selective adrenergic agonist는 topical allergy 같은 side effect가 현저하다.

47 b blocker는 b1과 b2 수용체를 모두 억제하는 비선택성약제와 주로 b1 차단 작용을 가진 선택성차단제로 구분되며 특이 nonselective b blocker는 bronchoconstriction 해서 천식, 만성폐쇄성질환, 만성기관지염 환자에서 증상의 악화를 유발할 수 있어서 주의를 요한다.

48 Thank you for your attention!


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