Motivation Concepts 동기부여의 기본개념 ⓒ Professor Kichan PARK 7-211

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Ch. 7 7-212

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VII-1. 동기부여의 정의 동기부여 (Motivation) 개인의 목표달성을 위한 집념, 방향설정 및 지속적인 노력의 과정 The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. 동기부여의 3대 핵심요소 (Key Elements) 1. 집념: 개인이 열심히 노력하는 강도 • Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. 방향: 바람직한 조직목표의 지향성 • Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. 지속성: 목표달성을 위한 노력기간 • Persistence: how long a person tries 7-214

VII-2. 동기유발의 초기이론 다음 초기 4대 이론은 아직도 매우 유용하게 사용되고 있다. These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers. 1. Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs Theory 2. McGregor‘s Theory X and Theory Y 3. Herzberg‘s Two-Factor Theory 4. McClelland‘s Theory of Needs 7-215

Maslow의 욕구 단계 Maslow의 욕구단계이론 자아실현 (Self-Actualization) (Hierarchy of Needs Theory) 사람의 욕구에는 생리적, 안전, 사회적, 존경, 그리고 자아실현 욕구 등 다섯 단계가 있다. 각 단계별 욕구가 충분하게 만족되면 그 다음 단계의 욕구가 부각된다. There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. 자아실현 (Self-Actualization) 자아발전과 이상적 자아를 실현하고 싶어 하는 욕구 The drive to become what one is capable of becoming 7-216

고차원의 욕구 사회적, 존경, 자아실현 욕구와 같이 내재적으로 욕구가 만족됨 저차원의 욕구 Needs that are Higher-Order Needs 사회적, 존경, 자아실현 욕구와 자아실혂 욕구 같이 내재적으로 욕구가 만족됨 Needs that are 졲경욕구 satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization 사회적 욕구 needs. 저차원의 욕구 Lower-Order Needs 앆젂욕구 생리적 및 안전욕구와 같이 외재적으로 욕구가 만족됨 생리적 Needs that are satisfied 욕구 externally; physiological and safety needs. 7-217

McGregor의 X이론과 Y이론 • X 이론 (Theory X) 인간은 일하기 싫어하고, 게으르며, 책임을 회피하려 하므로 강제적으로 일을 하도록 지시해야 한다는 가정 Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform. • Y 이론 (Theory Y) Theory X Theory Y 인간은 일하기를 좋아하며, 창의적이고, 책임을 질 줄 알며, 주어진 목표를 달성할 • Workers have • Workers are 줄 안다고 보는 가정 little ambition self-directed Assumes that employees like work, seek • Dislike work • Enjoy work responsibility, are capable of making • Avoid • Accept decisions, and exercise self-direction and responsibility responsibility self-control when committed to a goal. 7-218

Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not Herzberg의 2요인 이론 (Two-Factor Theory) 내재적 요인은 직무만족에, 그리고 외재적 요인은 불만족과 관련되어 있다는 이론 Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. 위생요인 (Hygiene Factors) 회사정책과 관리감독 및 임금 등의 요인이 적절하게 주어지면 종업원들의 불만족이 감소됨 Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied. Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs 7-219

Hygiene Motivators Factors Extrinsic and Intrinsic and Related to 7-220 Hygiene Motivators Factors Company Growth Policies Extrinsic and Intrinsic and Related to Related to Salary Responsibility Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Work Achievement Conditions

만족요인과 불만족 요인간의 비교 Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers 7-221 성취감 인정감 업무 •직무 불만족을 유발시키는 요인 책임감 Factors characterizing events on the job 승진 •직무만족을 유발시키는 요인 that led to extreme job dissatisfaction 성장 Factors characterizing events on the 회사의 방침 및 관리활동 job that led to extreme job satisfaction 감독 상사관계 불 만 만 족 족 요 작업조건 요 인 인 급여 동료 관계 위생 개인생활 동기 부하관계 지위 안전 백분율빈도 Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees? by Frederick Herzberg, September–October 1987. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved. 7-221

만족과 불만족에 대한 대조적 관점 Herzberg’s view Motivators Hygiene factors • 전통적 관점 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction • 전통적 관점 만족 불만족 • 허츠버그의 관점 Herzberg’s view Motivators Satisfaction 동기 요인 No satisfaction 만족 만족 없음 Hygiene factors Dissatisfaction No satisfaction 위생 요인 불만족 없음 불만족 7-222

Two-Factor Theory 에 대한 비판적 관점 Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction can occur. 1. 방법론의 제약: Limited by his methodology • Participants had self-serving bias 2. 신뢰성의 부족: Reliability of raters questioned • Bias or errors of observation 3. 일반성의 한계: No overall measure of satisfaction was used 4. 가설적 연구: Herzberg assumed, but didn‘t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity 7-223

앨더퍼의 ERG 이론 ERG 이론 기본 개념 (Concepts) 핵심 욕구 (Core Needs) ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer) ERG 이론 인간의 욕구는 존재, 관계 및 성장 욕구로 구성됨 There are three groups of core needs : existence, relatedness, and growth. 기본 개념 (Concepts) 핵심 욕구 (Core Needs) •하나 이상의 욕구가 동시에 •존재(Existence): 기본적, 물질적 욕구 작용하는 것이 가능 Provision of basic material More than one need can be requirements operative at the same time. •관계(Relatedness): 대인관계 욕구 •상위욕구가 충족되지 않으면 Desire for relationships 하위욕구 만족기대가 증가 •성장(Growth): 개인적 발전 욕구 If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a Desire for personal development lower-level need increases. 7-224

맥클리랜드의 욕구이론 nPow (권력) nAch nAff 성취욕구 친교욕구 권력욕구 (성취) (친교) David McClelland’s Theory of Needs 성취욕구 친교욕구 (Need for Achievement) (Need for Affiliation) 탁월한 수준에 도달하여 성공을 쟁취하고 가까운 대인관계를 향해 추진하려는 욕구 가지려는 욕구 The drive to excel, to achieve in The desire for friendly and close relation to a set of standards, to personal relationships. strive to succeed. nPow (권력) 권력욕구 (Need for Power) 상대방을 그냥 두면 실행하지 않을 것을 행하도록 하는 욕구 The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have nAch nAff behaved otherwise. (성취) (친교) 7-225

성취지향적인 사람에 적합한 직무특성 성취지향적읶 사람이 선호하는 직무특성 Achievers Prefer Matching High Achievers and Jobs (개인적 책임이 부과되는 업무) 성취지향적읶 사람이 선호하는 직무특성 Achievers Prefer (피드백이 이루어지는 업무) jobs that offer (적정 수준의 위험이 부과되는 업무) •Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk •Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch. Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success •Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations 7-226

모티베이션에 대한 최근 이론 1. Self-Determination Theory 2. Goal-Setting Theory Contemporary Theories of Motivation 1. Self-Determination Theory 2. Goal-Setting Theory • Management by Objectives (MBO) 3. Self-Efficacy Theory • Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory 4. Reinforcement Theory 5. Equity Theory 6. Expectancy Theory 7-227

VII-3. 자기결정이론 Self-Determination Theory 사람은 자신의 행동에 대한 통제권을 갖고자 한다: People prefer to feel they have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will undermine motivation. Major Implications for Work Rewards ① 내재적-외재적 보상은 상호 연계적 Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent ② 외재적 보상이 내재적 보상을 약화 Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards ③ 목표성정이 동기유발에 효과적 Goal setting is more effective in improving motivation ④ 칭찬은 내재적 보상을 강화 Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards reduce it 7-228

자기결정이론으로서 인지적 평가이론 인지적 평가이론 기존에 주어지던 내재적 보상을 외재적 보상으로 대체하게 되면 전반적 Cognitive Evaluation Theory 인지적 평가이론 기존에 주어지던 내재적 보상을 외재적 보상으로 대체하게 되면 전반적 동기유발이 감소하게 된다는 이론 Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation. 인지적 평가이론은 극단적으로 지루하거나 흥미로운 직무에 있어서 보다 명백하게 적용된다 The theory may only be relevant to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting. 7-229

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VII-4. Edwin Locke의 Goal-Setting Theory 1. 목표설정이론의 기본전제 (Basic Premise): ① 구체적, 어려운, 피드백 있는 목표가 높은 성과를 창출. That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance 2. 어려운 목표의 효과 (Difficult Goals): ① 초점과 직접적 관심 유도-Focus and direct attention ② 열심히 노력하도록 유도-Energize the person to work harder ③ 난이도는 인내심을 키움-Difficulty increases persistence ④ 효과적, 효율적인 인재육성-Force people to be more effective & efficient 3. 목표-성과 간의 관계수준은 다음 변수들에 의존 (Relationship between goals and performance depends on): ① 목표 일치성-Goal commitment (the more public the better!) ② 과업 특성-Task characteristics (simple, well-learned) ③ 문화-Culture (best match is in North America) 7-231

목표설정이론의 활용: 목표관리 (MBO) 조직단위에 따라 세부화된다. ① 목표관리는 목표설정의 체계적 활용방법이다. Implementation: Management by Objectives ① 목표관리는 목표설정의 체계적 활용방법이다. MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting. ② Goals must be: • 목표 구체성 (Tangible) • 증명 가능성 (Verifiable) • 측정 가능성 (Measurable) ③ 전사적 목표는 사업별목표 등 조직단위에 따라 세부화된다. Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization. ④ 목표관리 프로그램의 4대 공통요인 Four common ingredients to MBO programs: • 목표의 특수성-Goal specificity • 참여적 의사결정-Participative decision making • 목표달성 기간의 확정-Explicit time period • 성과에 대한 피드백-Performance feedback 7-232

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Bandura의 자기효능이론  과업수행이 가능하다는 개인의 믿음 Self-Efficacy Theory An individual‘s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. ① 높은 효능감의 특성 (Higher efficacy is related to): • 강한 자신감 -Greater confidence • 어려움 극복-Greater persistence in the face of difficulties • 부정적 결과에 대한 대응-Better response to negative feedback (work harder) ② 목표설정의 보완 (Self-efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory) 자신감의 고조 Increased Confidence 어려운 목표부여 고성과의 산출 Given Hard Goal Higher Performance 보다 높은 목표설정 Higher Self-Set Goal 7-234

자기효능감의 제고방안 Increasing Self-Efficacy 성공의 경험 - Enactive mastery ① 성공의 경험 - Enactive mastery • Most important source of efficacy • Gaining relevant experience with task or job • ―Practice makes perfect‖ ② 대리 모델링-Vicarious modeling • Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task • Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself ③ 구두 설득-Verbal persuasion • Motivation through verbal conviction • Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies ④ 각성과 고무-Arousal • Getting ―psyched up‖ – emotionally aroused – to complete task • Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task 7-235

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VII-5. 강화이론 Reinforcement Theory  목표설정이론과 유사하지만 인지보다 행동에 초점 Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one ① 행동의 원인은 환경-Behavior is environmentally caused ② 사고활동은 부수적-Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important : Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored ③ 행동은 ‘결과-강화‘에 의해 통제-Behavior is controlled by its S  O  R1 C  R2 consequences – reinforcers : ④ 동기유발이론이라기 보다는 행동분석 수단-Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior ⑤ 강화는 행동에 영향을 주는 유익한 변수가 아님-Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause 7-237

VII-6. Adams의 공정성 이론-Equity Theory  공정성: 타인과 대비한 투입대비 산출 비율 비교 - Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others. ① When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair ② When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness • Underrewarded states cause anger • Overrewarded states cause guilt ③ Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity 7-238

Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”  준거인물에 비교한 공정성의 4가지 상황 Can be four different situations: 7-239

불공정에 대한 반응: Reactions to Inequity 1. 공정성 회복행동-Employee behaviors to create equity: ① 자신의 투입 변경 Change inputs (slack off) ② 자신의 산출 변경 Change outcomes (increase output) ③ 자신의 지각 왜곡/변화 Distort/change perceptions of self ④ 타인의 지각 왜곡/변화 Distort/change perceptions of others ⑤ 다른 준거 대상의 선택 Choose a different referent person ⑥ 직장을 떠나 버린 Leave the field (quit the job) 2. 불공정 보상관련 제안-Propositions relating to inequitable pay: ① Paid by time (시간급의 경우는 생산량의 변화): • Overrewarded employees produce more • Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality ② Paid by quality (성과급의 경우에는 품질수준의 변화): • Overrewarded employees give higher quality • Underrewarded employees make more of low quality 7-240

정의와 공정성 이론 - Justice and Equity Theory 절차적 정의 Procedural Justice • Fairness of outcome process 분배적 정의 상호적 정의 Distributive Justice Interactional Justice • Fairness of outcome • Being treated with dignity and respect 조직적 정의 Organizational Justice 공정한 조직에 대한 전반적 지각 Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. 7-241

VII-7. Vroom의 기대이론 Expectancy Theory 행동성향은 기대 강도와 결과 매력도에 의해 결정: The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual. 노력-성과 관계 성과-보상 관계 보상-목표 관계 Expectancy of Instrumentality of Valuation of the performance success in getting reward in employee’s success reward eyes 개인의 노력 개인의 성과 조직의 보상 개인의 목표 7-242

P=f (A x M) P=f (A x M x O) 성과의 차론  보유능력x동기유발x기회보장 PerformanceDimensions P=f (A x M) P=f (A x M x O) 7-243

VII-8. 동기부여의 최근 이론 종합 Integrating Contemporary Motivation Theories 7-244

Global Implications  동기부여이론의 문화적 제약 Motivation Theories are Culture Bound ① U.S.: Based on Rational and Individual thought ② Maslow‘s Need Hierarchy: In Japan, Mexico and Greece Uncertainty-avoidance characteristics are strong, Security Needs would be on top of the Hierarchy! ③ Achievement Needs: Strong in Japan and U.S., while the European appeared far less strong! ④ Equity theory: Gained a strong support in U.S., but the East Europeans showed their individual needs as well as their performance! ⑤ But do not assume there is no cross-cultural consistency: The Desire for interesting work seems important to almost all workers! 7-245

Summary and Managerial Implications 1. 매슬로우 (Need Hierarchy) vs. 앨더퍼 (ERG theory) 2. 자기결정과 인지평가 (Self-Determination Theory and Cognitive Evaluation Theory) 3. 목표설정과 목표관리 (Goal-Setting Theory and MBO) 4. 강화이론의 성과기여 (Reinforcement Theory is valid in Job Performance of work but not in Job Satisfaction) 5. 공정성/조직정의 (Organizational Justice for Equity theory) 6. 상황별 기대 (Expectancy theory with Situational factors) 7-246