L2 언어습득/학습 이론과 관련된 영문법의 유형 홍 경 선 (제주대)

Topics What is L2 acquisition research? (Cook 2008 ; L2 learning is independent of L1 acquisition. More than the transfer of L1, L2 learners have independent systems) What is a language and grammar? What types of grammar can we discuss now? A language has patterns and regularities which are used to convey meaning, some of which make up its grammar.

L2 acquisition research Contrastive Analysis: compared the descriptions of two languages in grammar or pronunciation to discover the differences between them Error Analysis (Corder, 1981) : differences between the learner’s speech & that of native speakers Interlanguage, learner’s language Usage-based learning (Tomasello, 2003)

Discovery Activity (Thornbury 2005, p. 17) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Adam home. I like drink it. That what I do. Adam go hill. I Adam driving. Can I put I making coffee. them on? Like Adam Wake me up. You want me? book shelf Why hitting me? You watch Pick Adam What me doing? me. up. Why me spilled it?

What is grammar? (Cook 2008,2013) Prescriptive grammar: grammar that ‘prescribes’ what people should or should not say. a way of telling people what they ought to say, rather than reporting what they do say Traditional grammar: ‘school’ grammar concerned with labelling sentences with parts of speech, etc. a system for describing sentence structure used in English schools for centuries, based on grammars of classical language such as Latin

Types of grammar Structural grammar: grammar concerned with how words go into phrases and phrases into semantics Grammar as knowledge in the mind: Chomsky (linguistic competence) the knowledge of the structural regularities of language EFL grammar (traditional +structural )

Universal Grammar Early acquisition of English grammar: plural –s, progressive –ing, copula be, auxiliary be, the & a, irregular past tense, third person –s, possessive -s Mental grammar built into human mind Principles and parameters grammar: principles such as the locality (*Is Sam is the cat that black? ), parameters such as pro-drop (이태리어, 스페인어)

Universal Grammar L2 learners do not need to learn principles of UG as they will use them automatically. L2 learners need to acquire new parameter settings for parameters such as pro-drop, often starting from their L1. White(1986) 영어: 스페인이 프랑스보다 주어생략 에 관용적.스페인어: 미국은 주어생략 쉽게 학습 All L2 learners can be looked at within the same overall framework of grammar as it applies to all languages. 영어 대 일본인

Universal Grammar 이런 원리와 매개변인은 생득적 기능으로 자리하고 있으므로 positive evidence에 의거해서 바로 습득 가능함 Negative evidence: 어떤 문법 형태가 없다는 점과 교정(correction) : L1은 positive evidence로 언어습득이 가능하지만, L2 학습에서는 L1 전이 가능성이 있으므로, 교정 및 문법 설명 등이 도움이 됨. Input enhancement (Sharwood-Smith, 1993), bracketed input (Morgan 1986). UG 이론에서는 원리와 변인 스스로 습득 가능

Processing models behaviorist tradition The competition model By MacWhinney & his colleagues (1981, 1987, 2005) 심리학 이론에서 발전 언어를 정적인 지식으로 보지 않고 dynamic processing & communication으로 간주, how people use language에 관심 화자는 언어의 4가지 측면 Word order, vocabulary, word forms (morphology), intonation 을 통해 의사소통 함

The Competition Model Chinese: 억양 발달, 굴절형 없음. 경쟁력요인 English: 굴절형 보다는 복잡한 어순. Latin: 복잡한 굴절어미 체계 - Word order: 주어의 위치 SVO (English), VSO (Arabic, Berber), VOS(Tzeltal, Baure), Agreement: 주어는 불어, 영어 3인칭 단수일치 Case: 독어 주어는 격으로 Animacy: 일어 문장의 주어는 유정성을 보임 실험연구: 영어(어순) 네덜랜드(성수일치) 일어,이태리어(유정성)

The Competition Model Learning from outside/ input, interaction, correction (Skinner 1957 Verbal Behavior) The child builds up the complex use of language by interacting with people in a situation for a purpose. (Task-based와 유사) Language is processing at different levels. Learning involves practicing to build up the proper weightings, connections, and so on. -Use exercises to build up appropriate strengths of response in students, 연습 극대화

Cognitivism Anderson(1993) Cognitive behaviorist model (ACTR) learning as building up response strengths through a twofold division into declarative(individual pieces of information) memory and procedural memory (procedures for doing things) O’Malley & Chamot (1990) with learning strategies DeKeyser(1997) the learning of L2 conformed to the ideas of improvement with practice in classical psychology in terms of response time & number of errors

Connectionism Rumelhart & McClelland (1986) : learning as establishing the strengths between the vast numbers of connections in the mind. In language processing, many things are being processed simultaneously. Simulated learning by the computer, 컴퓨터가 언어자료를 입력해서 통사적 규칙성을 학습하는지 연구 Blackwell & Broeder (1992) 4명의 학습자가 아랍어, 터키어 대명사 굴절형 학습과정을 컴퓨터가 학습하는지 연구, 유사 과정을 보임.

Connectionism McLaughlin 등 1983 the information-processing model : controlled processing -> automatic processing 자동화를 통해 학습자가 보다 어렵고 복잡한 단계로 이동가능 UG models 연습에 대한 가치가 약한 반면 Processing models 언어 학습과정을 점진적인 발달과정으로 간주 Language is behavior and skill as well as mental knowledge. 연습의 필요성 인식

기계언어 vs 자연언어 Rutherford (1987: 37) Machines are constructed, whereas organisms grow. Machines have precision; organisms have plasticity. Machines have linear connections; organisms have cyclical interconnections. And, perhaps most important of all, machines are sterile, whereas organisms are fecund.

A Priori Grammar (Noam Chomsky) Discrete set of rules Logically & mentally detachable from discourse Prerequisite for generating discourse (“a cause”) Sentence is unit Data supplied by intuition A static entity, fully present at all times in the mind of the speaker

A Priori Grammar Essentially atemporal Homogeneous Analyzes all examples equally within the rule system; indifferent to prior texts. -- Cook (2008) Multicompetence

Functional Approach Generative Grammar, Universal Grammar의 주장과 상반되는 이론 들 P. Hopper: Seeing grammar as a continuous diachronic proce ss of grammaticalization. Larsen-Freeman: Language can be described both as a collection of products and as a process. organic dynamism

Emergent Grammar (Paul Hopper1988) Regularity comes out of use in discourse; “sedimented” patterns Cannot be distinguished in principle from discourse Emerges in discourse (“an effect”) Clause is unit Data come from actual discourse Regularities are always in flux and provisional and are continuously subject to negotiation, renovation, and abandonment

Emergent Grammar (Hopper1988) A real-time activity Heterogeneous (many different kinds of regularities) Investigates strategies for constructing texts that produce the fixing or sedimentation of forms that are understood to constitute grammar

Talmy Givon (1999) functional approach Chomsky와 Hopper 두 극단적 주장에 대해 반대하면서 the facts of grammar in natural language use tend to uphold a middle-ground position. Language must possess a certain rigidity for rapid speech-processing purposes, along with a flexibility that allows for change, adaptive innovation, and learning, not to mention the need to deal with contexts of high informational ambiguity and uncertainty.

Adele Goldberg Construction grammar (1999) the flexible, emergent quality of grammar is only apparent during initial grammar acquisition. “Once grammar is acquired, it is assumed that it has a highly conventionalized status, and that although minute changes in the system constantly occur, the system as a whole is fairly stable.

Construction grammar The grammatical construction is a pairing of form and content. Thus words are instances of constructions, phrase structures, idioms, and even morphemes… Syntax-lexicon continuum Ronald Langacker, Cognitive grammar Full entry model Usage-based model Default inheritance model, Complete inheritance model

Three Dimensions of Grammar (Larsen-Freeman 2003) Form: phonology/ graphology/semiology, morphology, syntax a) There is a pencil on the table. b) A pencil is on the table. Meaning: semantics Use: pragmatics c) I can’t imagine Nan’s doing such a thing. d) I can’t imagine Nan doing such a thing. --focus on the entire episode, focus on Nan

Grammar (Larsen-Freeman 2003; p.9) Rules Parts of speech; verb paradigms Structures; forms Word order in sentences Memorizing Red ink Drills Boring

Communication (Larsen-Freeman 2003; p.9) Dynamic understanding The four skills Meaning Accomplishing some purpose Interacting Establishing relationships Small group activities Fun